1.0++HISTORY+OF+THE+CHEMISTRY

media type="youtube" key="eC-EzLHiO2g" height="229" width="384" align="center"

//taken from:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC-EzLHiO2g //

By 1000 BC, the ancient civilizations were using technologies that would form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Extracting metal from their ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze.

//Taken from:// [|//http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0857271.html//]

-Robert Voile -Antoine Lavoisier

//Biography: -http://mgprofil.wordpress.com -http://en.wikipedia.org // = = = =



Chemistry is a branch of science that has been around for a long time. In fact, chemistry is known to date back to as far as the prehistoric times. Due to the amount of time chemistry takes up on the timeline, the science is split into four general chronological categories. The four categories are: prehistoric times - beginning of the Christian era (black magic), beginning of the Christian era - end of 17th century (alchemy), end of 17th century - mid 19th century (traditional chemistry) and mid 19th century - present (modern chemistry). The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians.

It was during this time that the roots of alchemy grew. The Greeks of Egypt are regarded as the forefathers of attempts to change valueless metals into metals of greater value (e.g. iron into gold). In the fourth century B.C, tZosimos the Greek described a substance called Xerion, a metal that supposedly turned other metals into gold. One needed to add a little dab of Xerion to a pile of metal and after two hundred years, the metal would have become gold. This was the extent of the world's knowledge on chemistry. In Europe, it remained so well into the Middle Ages (400-1500 C.E).

//Taken From: - [] - [] - [] - [] - [] // the history of chemistry  The look at the history of chemistry that occurs tries to show that chemistry, like any science, is not sterile, not a theoretical wall timeless, is a historical construction, a drama of ideas that is woven having a social fund to some extent the set.

In this first part briefly covers the major changes originating from suffering the planet until birth and death reorientation of Alchemy through the enormous progress of the ancient world and the contributions of Greek philosophy and the Greco - Roman  [|//taken from: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/histqui//]

The History of Chemistry  The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians

//[|t__aken from:__ http://www.albalagh.net/kids/science/chemistry.shtml]//

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">The history of chemistry By 1000 BC, the ancient civilizations were using technologies that would form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Extracting metal from their ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. Philosophical attempts to explain the nature of matter and its transformations failed. The protoscience of alchemy also failed, but by experimentation and recording the results set the stage for science. Modern chemistry begins to emerge when a clear distinction is made between chemistry and alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work //The Skeptical Chymist// (1661). Chemistry then becomes a full-fledged science when Antoine Lavoisier develops his law of conservation of mass, which demands careful measurements and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. So, while both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with the nature of matter and its transformations, it is only the chemists who apply the scientific method. The **history of chemistry** is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">//Take from : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry. //

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians. //<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">take from:<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%;">http://www.albalagh.net/kids/science/chemistry.shtml //



==history of chemistry==

Chemistry is a branch of science that has been around for a long time. In fact, chemistry is known to date back to as far as the prehistoric times. Due to the amount of time chemistry takes up on the timeline, the science is split into four general chronological categories. The four categories are: prehistoric times - beginning of the Christian era (black magic), beginning of the Christian era - end of 17th century (alchemy), end of 17th century - mid 19th century (traditional chemistry) and mid 19th century - present (modern chemistry).

media type="youtube" key="25lprEvoFJ8" width="339" height="280" align="center"

//<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">taken from: www.youtube.com/watch?v=25lprEvoFJ8 //

=<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Chemistry =

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">Jump to: [|navigation], [|search]For other uses, see [|Chemistry (disambiguation)]. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Chemistry** (from [|Arabic]: كيمياء [|Latinized]: chem (kēme), meaning [|"value"])[|[1]] is the [|science] of [|matter] and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by [|physics], but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized - concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of [|matter], as well as the changes it undergoes during [|chemical reactions].[|[2]] It is a [|physical science] for studies of various [|atoms], [|molecules], [|crystals] and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of [|energy] and [|entropy] in relation to the [|spontaneity] of [|chemical processes]. Modern chemistry evolved out of [|alchemy] and began to develop into its modern form through the 10th Century Arab world and following the [|chemical revolution] (1773). Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include [|inorganic chemistry], the study of [|inorganic] matter; [|organic chemistry], the study of [|organic] matter; [|biochemistry], the study of [|substances] found in [|biological organisms]; [|physical chemistry], the [|energy] related studies of chemical systems at macro, molecular and submolecular scales; [|analytical chemistry], the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their [|chemical composition] and [|structure]. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. [|neurochemistry] the chemical study of the [|nervous system] (see [|subdisciplines]).

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Summary
Chemistry is the scientific study of interaction of [|chemical substances][|[3]] that are constituted of [|atoms] or the subatomic particles: [|protons], [|electrons] and [|neutrons].[|[4]] Atoms combine to produce [|molecules] or [|crystals]. Chemistry is often called "[|the central science]" because it connects the other [|natural sciences] such as [|astronomy], [|physics], [|material science], [|biology], and [|geology].[|[5]][|[6]] The genesis of chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as [|alchemy], which had been practiced for several [|millennia] in various parts of the world, particularly the Middle East.[|[7]] The structure of objects we commonly use and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with, are a consequence of the properties of chemical substances and their interactions. For example, [|steel] is [|harder] than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid [|crystalline lattice]; wood burns or undergoes rapid [|oxidation] because it can react spontaneously with [|oxygen] in a [|chemical reaction] above a certain [|temperature]; sugar and salt dissolve in water because their molecular/ionic properties are such that dissolution is preferred under the ambient conditions. The transformations that are studied in chemistry are a result of interaction either between different chemical substances or between [|matter] and [|energy]. Traditional chemistry involves study of [|interactions] between [|substances] in a chemistry [|laboratory] using various forms of [|laboratory glassware]. [|Laboratory], Institute of Biochemistry, [|University of Cologne] A [|chemical reaction] is a transformation of some substances into one or more other substances.[|[8]] It can be symbolically depicted through a [|chemical equation]. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is most often equal. The nature of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws. [|Energy] and [|entropy] considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their [|structure], phase as well as their [|chemical compositions]. They can be analyzed using the tools of [|chemical analysis], e.g. [|spectroscopy] and [|chromatography]. Chemistry is an integral part of the [|science] curriculum both at the [|high school] as well as the early college level. At these levels, it is often called "[|general chemistry]" which is an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts that enable the student to acquire tools and skills useful at the advanced levels, whereby chemistry is invariably studied in any of its various sub-disciplines. [|Scientists], engaged in chemical [|research] are known as [|chemists].[|[9]] Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">History
Main article: [|History of chemistry]See also: [|Alchemy], [|Timeline of chemistry], and [|Nobel Prize in Chemistry] [|Ancient Egyptians] pioneered the art of synthetic "wet" chemistry up to 4,000 years ago.[|[10]] By 1000 BC ancient civilizations were using technologies that formed the basis of the various branches of chemistry such as; extracting metal from their ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. The genesis of chemistry can be traced to the widely observed phenomenon of [|burning] that led to [|metallurgy]—the art and science of processing ores to get metals (e.g. [|metallurgy in ancient India]). The greed for gold led to the discovery of the process for its purification, even though the underlying principles were not well understood—it was thought to be a transformation rather than purification. Many scholars in those days thought it reasonable to believe that there exist means for transforming cheaper (base) metals into gold. This gave way to alchemy and the search for the [|Philosopher's Stone] which was believed to bring about such a transformation by mere touch.[|[11]] [|Greek] [|atomism] dates back to 440 BC, as what might be indicated by the book //De Rerum Natura// (The Nature of Things)[|[12]] written by the Roman [|Lucretius][|[13]] in 50 BC. Much of the early development of purification methods is described by [|Pliny the Elder] in his //[|Naturalis Historia]//. A tentative outline is as follows: The earliest pioneers of Chemistry, and inventors of the modern [|scientific method], were medieval [|Arab and Persian scholars]. They introduced precise [|observation] and controlled [|experimentation] into the field and discovered numerous [|Chemical substances].[|[14]]
 * 1) Egyptian alchemy [3,000 BCE – 400 BCE], formulate early "element" theories such as the [|Ogdoad].
 * 2) Greek alchemy [332 BCE – 642 CE], the Greek king [|Alexander the Great] conquers Egypt and founds Alexandria, having the world's largest library, where scholars and wise men gather to study.
 * 3) [|Arab alchemy] [642 CE – 1200], the Muslim conquest of Egypt (primarily Alexandria); development of the Scientific Method by [|Alhazen] and [|Jābir ibn Hayyān] revolutionise the field of Chemistry.
 * 4) The House of Wisdom (Arabic: بيت الحكمة‎; Bait al-Hikma), Al-Andalus (Arabic: الأندلس‎) and Alexandria (Arabic: الإسكندرية) become the world leading institutions where scientists of all religious and ethnic backgrounds worked together in harmony expanding the reaches of Chemistry in a time known as the [|Islamic Golden Age].
 * 5) [|Jābir ibn Hayyān], [|al-Kindi], [|al-Razi], [|al-Biruni] and [|Alhazen] continue to dominate the field of Chemistry, mastering it and expanding the boundaries of knowledge and experimentation.
 * 6) European alchemy [1300 – present], [|Pseudo-Geber] builds on Arabic chemistry.
 * 7) Chemistry [1661], [|Boyle] writes his classic chemistry text //The Sceptical Chymist//.
 * 8) Chemistry [1787], [|Lavoisier] writes his classic //Elements of Chemistry//.
 * 9) Chemistry [1803], [|Dalton] publishes his //Atomic Theory//.

"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Muslims; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague [|hypothesis], the [|Saracens] introduced precise [|observation], controlled [|experiment], and careful records. They invented and named the [|alembic] (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable [|substances], composed [|lapidaries], distinguished [|alkalis] and [|acids], investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of [|drugs]. Alchemy, which the Muslims inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations." [|[15]] The most influential Muslim chemists were [|Geber] (d. 815), [|al-Kindi] (d. 873), [|al-Razi] (d. 925), [|al-Biruni] (d. 1048) and [|Alhazen] (d. 1039).[|[16]] The works of Geber became more widely known in Europe through [|Latin] translations by a [|pseudo-Geber] in 14th century [|Spain], who also wrote some of his own books under the pen name "Geber". The contribution of [|Indian alchemists and metallurgists] in the development of chemistry was also quite significant.[|[17]] The emergence of chemistry in Europe was primarily due to the recurrent incidence of the [|plague] and blights there during the so called [|Dark Ages]. This gave rise to a need for medicines. It was thought that there exists a universal medicine called the [|Elixir of Life] that can cure all diseases, but like the Philosopher's Stone, it was never found. For some practitioners, alchemy was an intellectual pursuit, over time, they got better at it. [|Paracelsus] (1493–1541), for example, rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called //[|iatrochemistry]//. Similarly, the influences of philosophers such as [|Sir Francis Bacon] (1561–1626) and [|René Descartes] (1596–1650), who demanded more rigor in mathematics and in removing bias from scientific observations, led to a [|scientific revolution]. In chemistry, this began with [|Robert Boyle] (1627–1691), who came up with an equation known as [|Boyle's Law] about the characteristics of gaseous state.[|[18]] Chemistry indeed came of age when [|Antoine Lavoisier] (1743–1794), developed the theory of [|Conservation of mass] in 1783; and the development of the [|Atomic Theory] by [|John Dalton] around 1800. The Law of Conservation of Mass resulted in the reformulation of chemistry based on this law and the oxygen theory of combustion, which was largely based on the work of Lavoisier. Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the [|phlogiston theory], and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature and made contribution to the modern metric system. Lavoisier also worked to translate the archaic and technical language of chemistry into something that could be easily understood by the largely uneducated masses, leading to an increased public interest in chemistry. All these advances in chemistry led to what is usually called the [|chemical revolution]. The contributions of Lavoisier led to what is now called modern chemistry—the chemistry that is studied in educational institutions all over the world. It is because of these and other contributions that [|Antoine Lavoisier] is often celebrated as the "[|Father of Modern Chemistry]".[|[19]] The later discovery of [|Friedrich Wöhler] that many natural substances, [|organic compounds], can indeed be synthesized in a chemistry [|laboratory] also helped the modern chemistry to mature from its infancy.[|[20]] The [|discovery of the chemical elements] has a long history from the days of alchemy and culminating in the discovery of the [|periodic table] of the chemical elements by [|Dmitri Mendeleev] (1834–1907)[|[21]] and later discoveries of some [|synthetic elements].

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Etymology
Main article: [|Chemistry (etymology)] The word //chemistry// comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is a set of practices that encompasses elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine. Alchemy in turn is derived from the [|Arabic] word "كيمياء" meaning "value", it is commonly thought of as the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold.[|[22]] This linguistic relation between the pursuit of value and alchemy is thought to have [|Egyptian] origins. Many believe that the Arabic word "alchemy" is derived from the word **Chemi** or **Kimi**, which is the ancient name of [|Egypt] in [|Egyptian].[|[23]][|[24]][|[25]] The word was subsequently borrowed by the [|Greeks], and from the Greeks by the Arabs when they occupied [|Alexandria] ([|Egypt]) in the 7th century. The Arabs added the Arabic definite article "al" to the word, resulting in the word "الكيمياء" (al-kīmiyā). Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Definitions
<span style="color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;">In retrospect, the definition of chemistry seems to invariably change per decade, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. Shown below are some of the standard definitions used by various noted chemists:
 * **Alchemy** (330) – the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies ([|Zosimos]).[|[26]]
 * **Chymistry** (1661) – the subject of the material principles of mixt bodies ([|Boyle]).[|[27]]
 * **Chymistry** (1663) – a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection ([|Glaser]).[|[28]]
 * **Chemistry** (1730) – the art of resolving mixt, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles ([|Stahl]).[|[29]]
 * **Chemistry** (1837) – the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces ([|Dumas]).[|[30]]
 * **Chemistry** (1947) – the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances ([|Pauling]).[|[31]]
 * **Chemistry** (1998) – the study of matter and the changes it undergoes ([|Chang]).[|[32]].

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Basic concepts
Several [|concepts] are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:[|[33]]

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Atom
Main article: [|Atom] An //atom// is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a positively charged core (the [|atomic nucleus]) which contains [|protons] and [|neutrons], and which maintains a number of [|electrons] to balance the positive charge in the nucleus. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain some of the [|chemical properties] of the element, such as [|electronegativity], [|ionization potential], preferred [|oxidation state](s), [|coordination number], and preferred types of [|bonds] to form (e.g., [|metallic], [|ionic], [|covalent]).

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Element
Main article: [|Chemical element] The concept of //chemical element// is related to that of chemical substance. A chemical element is characterized by a particular number of [|protons] in the [|nuclei] of its atoms. This number is known as the [|atomic number] of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element [|carbon], and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element [|uranium]. 94 different chemical elements or types of atoms based on the number of protons exist naturally. A further 18 have been recognised by [|IUPAC] as existing artificially only. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same number of protons, they may not necessarily have the same number of [|neutrons], such atoms are termed [|isotopes]. In fact several [|isotopes] of an element may exist. The most convenient presentation of the chemical elements is in the [|periodic table] of the chemical elements, which groups elements by atomic number. Due to its ingenious arrangement, [|groups], or columns, and [|periods], or rows, of elements in the table either share several chemical properties, or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as [|atomic radius], [|electronegativity], etc. Lists of the elements [|by name], [|by symbol], and by [|atomic number] are also available.

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Compound
Main article: [|Chemical compound] A //compound// is a substance with a //particular ratio// of atoms of particular [|chemical elements] which determines its composition, and a particular [|organization] which determines chemical properties. For example, [|water] is a compound containing [|hydrogen] and [|oxygen] in the ratio of two to one, with the oxygen atom between the two hydrogen atoms, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by [|chemical reactions].

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Substance
Main article: [|Chemical substance] A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite [|composition] and set of [|properties].[|[34]] Strictly speaking, a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements is not a chemical substance, but it may be called a chemical. Most of the substances we encounter in our daily life are some kind of mixture; for example: [|air], [|alloys], [|biomass], etc. Nomenclature of substances is a critical part of the language of chemistry. Generally it refers to a system for naming [|chemical compounds]. Earlier in the history of chemistry substances were given name by their discoverer, which often led to some confusion and difficulty. However, today the IUPAC system of chemical nomenclature allows chemists to specify by name specific compounds amongst the vast variety of possible chemicals. The standard nomenclature of chemical substances is set by the [|International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry] (IUPAC). There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. [|Organic compounds] are named according to the [|organic nomenclature] system.[|[35]] [|Inorganic compounds] are named according to the [|inorganic nomenclature] system.[|[36]] In addition the [|Chemical Abstracts Service] has devised a method to index chemical substance. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as [|CAS registry number].

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Molecule
Main article: [|Molecule] A //molecule// is the smallest indivisible portion, besides an atom, of a pure [|chemical substance] that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. Molecules can exist as electrically neutral units unlike [|ions]. Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by [|covalent bonds], such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in [|lone pairs]. A molecular structure depicts the bonds and relative positions of atoms in a molecule such as that in [|Paclitaxel] shown here. One of the main characteristic of a molecule is its geometry often called its [|structure]. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Mole
Main article: [|Mole (unit)] A mole is the amount of a [|substance] that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 0.012 [|kilogram] (or 12 [|grams]) of [|carbon-12], where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their [|ground state].[|[37]] This number is known as the [|Avogadro constant], and is determined empirically. The currently accepted value is 6.02214179(30) × 1023 mol−1 (2007 [|CODATA]). The best way to understand the meaning of the term "mole" is to compare it to terms such as [|dozen]. Just as one dozen is equal to 12, one mole is equal to 6.02214179(30) × 1023. The term is used because it is much easier to say, for example, 1 mole of carbon atoms, than it is to say 6.02214179(30) × 1023 carbon atoms. Likewise, we can describe the number of entities as a multiple or fraction of 1 mole, e.g. 2 mole or 0.5 moles. Mole is an absolute number (having no units) and can describe any type of elementary object, although the mole's use is usually limited to measurement of [|subatomic], [|atomic], and [|molecular] structures. The number of moles of a substance in one liter of a [|solution] is known as its [|molarity]. Molarity is the common unit used to express the [|concentration] of a solution in [|physical chemistry].

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Ions and salts
Main article: [|Ion] An //ion// is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Positively charged [|cations] (e.g. [|sodium] cation Na+) and negatively charged [|anions] (e.g. [|chloride] Cl−) can form a crystalline lattice of neutral [|salts] (e.g. [|sodium chloride] NaCl). Examples of [|polyatomic ions] that do not split up during [|acid-base reactions] are [|hydroxide] (OH−) and [|phosphate] (PO43−). Ions in the gaseous phase is often known as [|plasma].

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Acidity and basicity
Main article: [|Acid] A substance can often be classified as an [|acid] or a [|base]. This is often done on the basis of a particular kind of reaction, namely the exchange of protons between chemical compounds. However, an extension to this mode of classification was brewed up by the American chemist, [|Gilbert Newton Lewis]; in this mode of classification the reaction is not limited to those occurring in an [|aqueous solution], thus is no longer limited to solutions in water. According to concept as per Lewis, the crucial things being exchanged are charges[|[38]]. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept [|[39]]

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Phase
Main article: [|Phase (matter)] In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A //phase// is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as [|pressure] or [|temperature]. Physical properties, such as [|density] and [|refractive index] tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the //[|phase transition]//, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a [|supercritical] state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a [|triple point] and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are [|solids], [|liquids], and [|gases]. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid [|iron] (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the [|crystal structure], or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the //aqueous// phase, whihch is the state of substances dissolved in [|aqueous solution] (that is, in water). Less familiar phases include [|plasmas], [|Bose-Einstein condensates] and [|fermionic condensates] and the [|paramagnetic] and [|ferromagnetic] phases of [|magnetic] materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in [|biology].

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Redox
Main article: [|Redox] It is a concept related to the ability of atoms of various substances to lose or gain electrons. Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as [|oxidizing agents], oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as [|reducing agents], reductants, or reducers. A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in [|oxidation number], and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Bonding
Main article: [|Chemical bond][|Electron] atomic and [|molecular] orbitals Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the [|multipole] balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.[|[40]] More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. These potentials create the [|interactions] which hold [|atoms] together in [|molecules] or [|crystals]. In many simple compounds, [|Valence Bond Theory], the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ([|VSEPR]), and the concept of [|oxidation number] can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from [|classical physics] can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as [|metal complexes], valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches, primarily based on principles of [|quantum chemistry] such as the [|molecular orbital] theory, are necessary. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Reaction
Main article: [|Chemical reaction] When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. //Chemical reaction// is a therefore a concept related to transformations of [|chemical substances] through interactions. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well with the system environment which may be a designed vessels which are often [|laboratory glassware]. Chemical reactions can result in the formation or [|dissociation] of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of [|atoms] within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of [|chemical bonds]. [|Oxidation, reduction], [|dissociation], acid-base [|neutralization] and molecular [|rearrangement] are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a [|chemical equation]. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.[|[41]] The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its [|mechanism]. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many [|reaction intermediates] with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the [|kinetics] and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many [|physical chemists] specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the [|Woodward-Hoffmann rules] often come handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. A stricter definition is that "a chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species".[|[42]] Under this definition, a chemical reaction may be an [|elementary reaction] or a [|stepwise reaction]. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the [|interconversion of conformers] is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Equilibrium
Main article: [|Chemical equilibrium] Although the concept of [|equilibrium] is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible. For example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more then one kind of phase. The concept is used to describe the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remains unchanged over time. Chemicals present in biological systems are invariably not at equilibrium, rather they are far from equilibrium.

<span class="mw-headline" style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">Energy
Main article: [|Energy] In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its [|atomic], [|molecular] or aggregate [|structure]. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an [|increase] or [|decrease] of [|energy] of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of [|heat] or [|light]; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be [|exothermic] if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of [|endothermic] reactions the situation is otherwise. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the [|activation energy]. The //speed// of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor //e// − //E// / //k////T//  - that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the [|Arrhenius equation]. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of heat, light, [|electricity] or mechanical [|force] in the form of [|ultrasound].[|[43]] A related concept [|free energy], which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in [|chemical thermodynamics]. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the [|Gibbs free energy] is negative, ; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at [|equilibrium]. There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of [|quantum mechanics], which require [|quantization] of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H2O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by [|hydrogen bonds].[|[44]] Whereas [|hydrogen sulfide] (H2S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker [|dipole-dipole interactions]. The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the //size// of energy [|quanta] emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the [|phonons] responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than [|photons] invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy. The existence of characteristic energy levels for different [|chemical substances] is useful for their identification by the analysis of [|spectral lines]. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical [|spectroscopy], e.g. [|IR], [|microwave], [|NMR], [|ESR], etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra. Emission spectrum of [|iron] The term [|chemical energy] is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a [|chemical reaction] or to transform other chemical substances.

Taken from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry

this is a atom //<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">taken from: // [|//http://www.napavalley.edu/Academics/SME/Chemistry/PublishingImages/chemistry_molecules.gif//]

Alchemy It was during this time that the roots of alchemy grew. The Greeks of Egypt are regarded as the forefathers of attempts to change valueless metals into metals of greater value (e.g. iron into gold). In the fourth century B.C, Zosimos the Greek described a substance called Xerion, a metal that supposedly turned other metals into gold. One needed to add a little dab of Xerion to a pile of metal and after two hundred years, the metal would have become gold. This was the extent of the world's knowledge on chemistry. In Europe, it remained so well into the Middle Ages (400-1500 C.E).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Alchemists (~1000-1650) Among other things, the alchemists sought a universal solvent, attempted to change lead and other metals into gold, and tried to discover an elixir which would prolong life.The alchemists learned how to use metallic compounds and plant-derived materials to treat diseases.

<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Torricelli, Evangelista (1643) Invented the mercury barometer <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">cheele, C.W. (1742-1786) Discovered chlorine, tartaric acid, metal oxidation, and sensitivity of silver compounds to light (photochemistry).

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Franklin, Benjamin (1752) Demonstrated that lightning is electricity <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">.

<span style="color: #333333; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">**// Taken from //**[|http://chemistry.about.com/cs/history/a/aa020204a.htm] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">//taken from:// [|//**//http://www.scientific-web.com/en/Physics/Biographies/images/Torricelli.jpg//**//] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">//taken from:http://scrapetv.com/News/News%20Pages/usa/images-4/benjamin-franklin.jpg//

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> In prehistoric times chemistry was more an art than a science, after the chemical revolution of the 18th century it became a real science and now it is an important part of our daily lives. However, chemistry has a negative perception in public opinion. It is seen as bad for people and damaging to the environment, the industrial contamination and disasters have a negative impact on public opinion.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">taken from:http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&gbv=2&as_q=history+of+chemistry&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&num=30&lr=&as_filetype=doc&ft=i&as_sitesearch=&as_qdr=all&as_rights=&as_occt=any&cr=&as_nlo=&as_nhi=&safe=images //

taken from:http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&gbv=2&as_q=history+of+chemistry&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&num=30&lr=&as_filetype=doc&ft=i&as_sitesearch=&as_qdr=all&as_rights=&as_occt=any&cr=&as_nlo=&as_nhi=&safe=images

//<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">taken from:http://www.unomaha.edu/chemistry/web%20images/chemistry.jpg //

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">the modern definition of chemistry

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: right;">Classically, before the 20th century, chemistry was defined as the science of the nature of matter and its transformations. It was therefore clearly distinct from physics which was not concerned with such dramatic transformation of matter. Moreover, in contrast to physics, chemistry was not using much of mathematics. Even some were particularly reluctant to using mathematics within chemistry. For example, [|Auguste Comte] wrote in 1830:

Every attempt to employ mathematical methods in the study of chemical questions must be considered profoundly irrational and contrary to the spirit of chemistry.... if mathematical analysis should ever hold a prominent place in chemistry -- an aberration which is happily almost impossible -- it would occasion a rapid and widespread degeneration of that science. However, in the second part of the 19th century, the situation changed and [|August Kekule] wrote in 1867:

I rather expect that we shall someday find a mathematico-mechanical explanation for what we now call atoms which will render an account of their properties. After the discovery by [|Ernest Rutherford] and [|Niels Bohr] of the atomic structure in 1912, and by [|Marie] and [|Pierre Curie] of [|radioactivity], scientists had to change their viewpoint on the nature of matter. The experience acquired by chemists was no longer pertinent to the study of the whole nature of matter but only to aspects related to the [|electron cloud] surrounding the atomic [|nuclei] and the movement of the latter in the [|electric field] induced by the former (see [|Born-Oppenheimer approximation]). The range of chemistry was thus restricted to the nature of matter around us in conditions which are not too far (or exceptionally far) from [|standard conditions for temperature and pressure] and in cases where the exposure to radiation is not too different from the natural [|microwave], [|visible] or [|UV] radiations on Earth. Chemistry was therefore re-defined as the science of matter that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and with the transformations that they undergo.[//[|citation needed]//] However the meaning of matter used here relates explicitly to substances made of atoms and molecules, disregarding the matter within the atomic nuclei and its nuclear reaction or matter within highly ionized plasmas. This does not mean that chemistry is never involved with plasma or nuclear sciences or even bosonic fields nowadays, since areas such as Quantum Chemistry and Nuclear Chemistry are currently well developed and formally recognized sub-fields of study under the Chemical sciences (Chemistry), but what is now formally recognized as subject of study under the Chemistry category as a science is always based

on the use of concepts that describe or explain phenomena either from matter or to matter in the atomic or molecular scale, including the study of the behavior of many molecules as an aggregate or the study of the effects of a single proton on an single atom, but excluding phenomena that deal with different (more "exotic") types of matter (e.g. Bose-Einstein condensate, Higgs Boson, dark matter, naked singularity, etc.) and excluding principles that refer to intrinsic abstract laws of nature in which their concepts can be formulated completely without a precise formal molecular or atomic paradigmatic view (e.g. Quantum Chromodynamics, Quantum Electrodynamics, String Theory, parts of Cosmology (see [|Cosmochemistry]), certain areas of Nuclear Physics (see [|Nuclear Chemistry]),etc.). Nevertheless the field of chemistry is still, on our human scale, very broad and the claim that //chemistry is everywhere// is accurate.



taken from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry

<span style="color: #f41a1a; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 187.2%; text-align: center;">Achemy <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Alchemy, originally derived from the [|Ancient Greek] word //khemia// (Χημία) meaning "art of transmuting metals", later arabicized as //al-kimia// (الكيمياء), is both a [|philosophy] and an ancient practice focused on the attempt to change base metals into gold, investigating the preparation of the "elixir of longevity", and achieving ultimate [|wisdom], involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties.[|[1]] The practical aspect of alchemy generated the basics of modern [|inorganic chemistry], namely concerning procedures, equipment and the identification and use of many current substances. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Alchemy has been practiced in [|Mesopotamia] (comprising much of today's [|Iraq]), [|Egypt], [|Persia] (today's [|Iran]), [|India], [|China], [|Japan], [|Korea] and in [|Classical] [|Greece] and [|Rome], in the [|Post-Islamic Persia], and then in [|Europe] up to the 20th century, in a complex [|network] of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 22500 years

//<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 80%; text-align: right;">taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy // The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians. Alchemy It was during this time that the roots of alchemy grew. The Greeks of Egypt are regarded as the forefathers of attempts to change valueless metals into metals of greater value (e.g. iron into gold). In the fourth century B.C, Zosimos the Greek described a substance called Xerion, a metal that supposedly turned other metals into gold. One needed to add a little dab of Xerion to a pile of metal and after two hundred years, the metal would have become gold. This was the extent of the world's knowledge on chemistry. In Europe, it remained so well into the Middle Ages (400-1500 C.E). The Coming of Islam Yet at that time, a new empire was forming. Islam was spreading among the people of Arabia. At 632 C.E when Prophet Muhammad, Sall-Allahu alayhi wa sallam, died, nearly all of Arabia had become Muslim. Islam had raised these people from ignorance and darkness into light. The Muslims started to become the most advanced civilization of that time. Though Greeks are shown as wise people who had spectacular achievements in science, Muslims are portrayed as alchemists and transmitters of Greek "wisdom", and Western scientists are shown as the real founders of chemistry, the truth is actually the opposite. It is true that Muslims translated many books and writings of the ancients. However, Muslims soon realized that in the field of chemistry the ancients, mainly being alchemists, dealt primarily with speculation and mystery. Chemistry was not a science before the Muslims. The Muslims invented the scientific method and used it in their research tremendously. The historian Briffault's book, Making of Humanity, has been quoted in Dr. K Ajram's book, The Miracle of Islam Science: "Investigation, accumulation of positive knowledge, minute methods of science and prolonged observation were alien to Greek temperament. These were introduced to Europe by the Arabs. European science owes its existence to the Arabs." Will Durant notes that Muslims "introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records." Work of Muslims Muslims were not alchemists, but rather they were the world's first true chemists. They produced a variety of compounds useful for the development and advancement of science, culture, industry, and civilization. Muslims invented and/or perfected the processes of distillation, sublimation, crystallization, oxidation, and precipitation. They discovered the process of calcination, which is used to reduce substances to a powdered form. Muslims also discovered many elements with their specific weights. Al-Jabr (d. 815?) discovered 19 elements along with their specific weights. They also were the first to accurately divide the elements. Muslims distinguished between metals and alloys, noting that alloys were only mixtures and not true elements. They originated the synthesis of numerous crucial substances that are essential to the development of chemical sciences. The acid-base principal of chemistry was entirely their development. The pH scale was their invention. Evidence is found in the fact that the word alkali originated from the Arabic word al-kili. They invented the concept of solutions regarding the solubility or insolubility of substances. Industrial Chemistry As industrial chemists, Muslims used advanced techniques for extracting minerals and metals. They perfected glass making and introduced the technology for coloring it with metal oxides. They invented crystal making. They introduced and perfected steel making. They produced dyes and used them in tiles, woodworking, and clothing. They produced a variety of plasters, glazes, and other building compounds. Muslim Spain had roads paved with cement instead of stones and had the world's first street lights. Instruments Muslims invented and/or widely used many chemical instruments that are used until now. They used burners, water baths, bellows, crucibles, distillation apparatuses, scales and weights, beakers, filters, flasks, phials, test tubes, etc. Production of Paper Muslims also perfected the production of paper. This accomplishment is often attributed to the Chinese. Though it is true that the Chinese produced paper, this was done through a tedious process requiring silk. It was the Muslims who instituted chemically-aided paper production. The first paper-manufacturing plant in the Muslim World was opened in Baghdad in 794 C.E. Millions upon millions of books were published wherever this invention arrived. In 891 C.E., Baghdad had over a hundred booksellers. Most mosques had libraries. Many cities also had public libraries. Baghdad at the time of the Mongols' invasion had thirty-six libraries. Private libraries were innumerable; it was common for rich people to have huge collections of books. Princes, according to Will Durant, "in the tenth century might own as many books as could be found in all the libraries of Europe combined." Slowly but steadily, Europeans became accustomed to the luxury of imported paper from the Muslim world. Paper was used in Constantinople by 1100, in Sicily by 1102, in Italy by 1154, in Germany by 1228, and in England by 1309. The production of the many cheap books by Europeans was only possible after the replacement of parchment and silk paper with this new paper. The Western world slowly rose from the coffins of illiteracy in which it had been sinking. Muslims' Writings and Books Muslims' writings and books spurred and strongly stimulated the development of European chemistry. Translated versions of Al-Jabr's works were, according to Mathe, Lavoisier's "bible." Ar-Razi's (d. 925) booklet, Secret of Secrets, is said to be the first known example of a chemistry lab manual. Their books were used in many European schools for many centuries. After the Crusades, especially, as returning Western soldiers told fantastic tales of the Muslim World and all the knowledge that was there, Europeans wanted to learn more and their thirst for knowledge grew. Many books were translated into European languages. Slowly, the Western World acquired the knowledge of Muslims, and began its Renaissance. Bibliography
 * The History of Chemistry
 * 1) Ajram, K. 1992. The Miracle of Islamic Science. Knowledge House Publishers.
 * 2) Durant, Will. 1950. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. ||


 * Albalagh Children Home [[image:../display/arrow.gif width="25" height="12"]] Science [[image:../display/arrow.gif width="25" height="12"]] The History of Chemistry ||
 * [] ||
 * No Copyright Notice. All the material appearing on this web site can be freely distributed for non-commercial purposes. Acknowledgement will be appreciated. The audio files may be copied to tapes, etc. for your listening convenience. ||
 * No Copyright Notice. All the material appearing on this web site can be freely distributed for non-commercial purposes. Acknowledgement will be appreciated. The audio files may be copied to tapes, etc. for your listening convenience. ||

<span style="color: #ff0000; display: block; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">The History of Chemistry <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The earliest record of man's interest in chemistry was approximately 3,000 B.C, in the fertile crescent. At that time, chemistry was more an art than a science. Tablets record the first known chemists as women who manufactured perfumes from various substances. Ancient Egyptians produced certain compounds such as those used in mummification. By 1000 B.C, chemical arts included the smelting of metals and the making of drugs, dyes, iron, and bronze. Iron making was also introduced and refinement of lead and mercury was performed. The physical properties of some metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and gold were understood. Many groups of people contributed to these developments--among them were ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Chinese, and Indians. Alchemy It was during this time that the roots of alchemy grew. The Greeks of Egypt are regarded as the forefathers of attempts to change valueless metals into metals of greater value (e.g. iron into gold). In the fourth century B.C, Zosimos the Greek described a substance called Xerion, a metal that supposedly turned other metals into gold. One needed to add a little dab of Xerion to a pile of metal and after two hundred years, the metal would have become gold. This was the extent of the world's knowledge on chemistry. In Europe, it remained so well into the Middle Ages (400-1500 C.E). The Coming of Islam Yet at that time, a new empire was forming. Islam was spreading among the people of Arabia. At 632 C.E when Prophet Muhammad, Sall-Allahu alayhi wa sallam, died, nearly all of Arabia had become Muslim. Islam had raised these people from ignorance and darkness into light. The Muslims started to become the most advanced civilization of that time. Though Greeks are shown as wise people who had spectacular achievements in science, Muslims are portrayed as alchemists and transmitters of Greek "wisdom", and Western scientists are shown as the real founders of chemistry, the truth is actually the opposite. It is true that Muslims translated many books and writings of the ancients. However, Muslims soon realized that in the field of chemistry the ancients, mainly being alchemists, dealt primarily with speculation and mystery. Chemistry was not a science before the Muslims. The Muslims invented the scientific method and used it in their research tremendously. The historian Briffault's book, Making of Humanity, has been quoted in Dr. K Ajram's book, The Miracle of Islam Science: "Investigation, accumulation of positive knowledge, minute methods of science and prolonged observation were alien to Greek temperament. These were introduced to Europe by the Arabs. European science owes its existence to the Arabs." Will Durant notes that Muslims "introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records." Work of Muslims Muslims were not alchemists, but rather they were the world's first true chemists. They produced a variety of compounds useful for the development and advancement of science, culture, industry, and civilization. Muslims invented and/or perfected the processes of distillation, sublimation, crystallization, oxidation, and precipitation. They discovered the process of calcination, which is used to reduce substances to a powdered form. Muslims also discovered many elements with their specific weights. Al-Jabr (d. 815?) discovered 19 elements along with their specific weights. They also were the first to accurately divide the elements. Muslims distinguished between metals and alloys, noting that alloys were only mixtures and not true elements. They originated the synthesis of numerous crucial substances that are essential to the development of chemical sciences. The acid-base principal of chemistry was entirely their development. The pH scale was their invention. Evidence is found in the fact that the word alkali originated from the Arabic word al-kili. They invented the concept of solutions regarding the solubility or insolubility of substances. Industrial Chemistry As industrial chemists, Muslims used advanced techniques for extracting minerals and metals. They perfected glass making and introduced the technology for coloring it with metal oxides. They invented crystal making. They introduced and perfected steel making. They produced dyes and used them in tiles, woodworking, and clothing. They produced a variety of plasters, glazes, and other building compounds. Muslim Spain had roads paved with cement instead of stones and had the world's first street lights. Instruments Muslims invented and/or widely used many chemical instruments that are used until now. They used burners, water baths, bellows, crucibles, distillation apparatuses, scales and weights, beakers, filters, flasks, phials, test tubes, etc. Production of Paper Muslims also perfected the production of paper. This accomplishment is often attributed to the Chinese. Though it is true that the Chinese produced paper, this was done through a tedious process requiring silk. It was the Muslims who instituted chemically-aided paper production. The first paper-manufacturing plant in the Muslim World was opened in Baghdad in 794 C.E. Millions upon millions of books were published wherever this invention arrived. In 891 C.E., Baghdad had over a hundred booksellers. Most mosques had libraries. Many cities also had public libraries. Baghdad at the time of the Mongols' invasion had thirty-six libraries. Private libraries were innumerable; it was common for rich people to have huge collections of books. Princes, according to Will Durant, "in the tenth century might own as many books as could be found in all the libraries of Europe combined." Slowly but steadily, Europeans became accustomed to the luxury of imported paper from the Muslim world. Paper was used in Constantinople by 1100, in Sicily by 1102, in Italy by 1154, in Germany by 1228, and in England by 1309. The production of the many cheap books by Europeans was only possible after the replacement of parchment and silk paper with this new paper. The Western world slowly rose from the coffins of illiteracy in which it had been sinking. Muslims' Writings and Books Muslims' writings and books spurred and strongly stimulated the development of European chemistry. Translated versions of Al-Jabr's works were, according to Mathe, Lavoisier's "bible." Ar-Razi's (d. 925) booklet, Secret of Secrets, is said to be the first known example of a chemistry lab manual. Their books were used in many European schools for many centuries. After the Crusades, especially, as returning Western soldiers told fantastic tales of the Muslim World and all the knowledge that was there, Europeans wanted to learn more and their thirst for knowledge grew. Many books were translated into European languages. Slowly, the Western World acquired the knowledge of Muslims, and began its Renaissance. Bibliography
 * 1) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ajram, K. 1992. The Miracle of Islamic Science. Knowledge House Publishers.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Durant, Will. 1950. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster.

taken from: []

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">history of chemistry
<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Chemistry is a branch of science that has been around for a long time. In fact, chemistry is known to date back to as far as the prehistoric times. Due to the amount of time chemistry takes up on the timeline, the science is split into four general chronological categories. The four categories are: prehistoric times - beginning of the Christian era (black magic), beginning of the Christian era - end of 17th century (alchemy), end of 17th century - mid 19th century (traditional chemistry) and mid 19th century - present (modern chemistry).

Beginning of the Christian Era (Black Magic) [] || 1700 BC || King [|Hammurabi]'s reign over Babylon || Known metals were recorded and listed in conjunction with heavenly bodies. || End of 17th Century ([|Alchemy]) [] || 300 BC -300 AD || The Advent of the Alchemists || Influenced greatly by Aristotle's ideas, alchemists attempted to transmute cheap metals to gold. The substance used for this conversion was called the [|//Philosopher's Stone//]. || End of 17th Century - Mid 19th Century (Traditional Chemistry)
 * **Time Intervals** || **Specific Times** || **Events** || **Description** ||
 * Prehistoric Times -
 * ^  || 430 BC || [|Democritus] of ancient Greece || Democritus proclaims the atom to be the simplest unit of matter. All matter was composed of atoms. ||
 * ^  || 300 BC || Aristotle of ancient Greece || [|Aristotle] declares the existence of only four elements: fire, air, water and earth. All matter is made up of these four elements and matter had four properties: hot, cold, dry and wet. ||
 * Beginning of the Christian Era -
 * ^  || 13th Century (1200's) - 15th Century (1400's) || Failure of the [|Gold] Business || Although [|Pope John XXII] issued an edict against gold-making, the gold business continued. Despite the alchemists' efforts, transmutation of cheap metals to gold never happened within this time period. ||
 * ^  || 1520 || [|Elixir of Life] || Alchemists not only wanted to convert metals to gold, but they also wanted to find a chemical concoction that would enable people to live longer and cure all ailments. This elixir of life never happened either. ||
 * ^  || End of 17th Century || Death of Alchemy || The disproving of Aristotle's four-elements theory and the publishing of the book, //The Skeptical Chemist// (by [|Robert Boyle]), combined to destroy this early form of chemistry. ||

[] || 1700's || Phlogiston Theory Coulomb's Law || Johann J. Beecher believed in a substance called [|phlogiston]. When a substance is burned, phlogiston was supposedly added from the air to the flame of the burning object. In some substances, a product is produced. For example, calx of mercury plus phlogiston gives the product of mercury. [|Charles Coulomb] discovered that given two particles separated by a certain distance, the force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and is inversely proportional to the distance between the two charges. || Present ([|Modern Chemistry] //or// 20th Century Chemistry)
 * ^  || 1774-1794 || Disproving of the Phlogiston Theory || [|Joseph Priestley] heated calx of mercury, collected the colorless gas and burned different substances in this colorless gas. Priestley called the gas "dephlogisticated air", but it was actually oxygen. It was [|Antoine Lavoisier] who disproved the Phlogiston Theory. He renamed the "dephlogisticated air" oxygen when he realized that the oxygen was the part of air that combines with substances as they burn. Because of Lavoisier's work, Lavoisier is now called the "Father of Modern Chemistry". ||
 * ^  || 1803 || Dalton's Atomic Theory || [|John Dalton] publishes his Atomic Theory which states that all matter is composed of atoms, which are small and indivisible. ||
 * Mid 19th Century -

[] || 1854 || Vacuum Tube || [|Heinrich Geissler] creates the first vacuum tube. || Radioactive Elements || [|J.J. Thomson] placed the Crookes' tube within a magnetic field. He found that the cathode rays were negatively charged and that each charge had a mass ratio of 1.759E8 coulombs per gram. He concluded that all atoms have this negative charge (through more experiments) and he renamed the cathode rays electrons. His model of the atom showed a sphere of positively charged material with negative electrons stuck in it. Thomson received the 1906 [|Nobel Prize] in physics. [|Marie Curie] discovered uranium and thorium within pitchblend. She then continued to discover two previously unknown elements: radium and polonium. These two new elements were also found in pitchblend. She received two nobel prizes for her discovery; one was in chemistry while the other was in physics. || Neutron Bombardment and Nuclear Fission || [|James Chadwick] discovers the neutron. [|Enrico Fermi] bombards elements with neutrons and produces elements of the next highest atomic number. [|Nuclear fission] occurred when Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons. He received the 1938 Nobel Prize in physics. ||
 * ^  || 1879 || [|Cathode Rays] || [|William Crookes] made headway in modern atomic theory when he used the vacuum tube made by Heinrich Geissler to discover cathode rays. Crookes created a glass vacuum tube which had a zinc sulfide coating on the inside of one end, a metal cathode imbedded in the other end and a metal anode in the shape of a cross in the middle of the tube. When electricity was run through the apparatus, an image of the cross appeared and the [|zinc sulfide] glowed. Crookes hypothesized that there must have been rays coming from the cathode which caused the zinc sulfide to fluoresce and the cross to create a shadow and these rays were called cathode rays. ||
 * ^  || 1885 || [|The Proton] || Eugene Goldstein discovered positive particles by using a tube filled with hydrogen gas (this tube was similar to Thomson's tube...see 1897). The positive particle had a charge equal and opposite to the electron. It also had a mass of 1.66E-24 grams or one atomic mass unit. The positive particle was named the proton. ||
 * ^  || 1895 || X-rays || [|Wilhelm Roentgen] accidentally discovered x-rays while researching the glow produced by cathode rays. Roentgen performed his research on cathode rays within a dark room and during his research, he noticed that a bottle of barium platinocyanide was glowing on a shelf. He discovered that the rays that were causing the fluorescence could also pass through glass, cardboard and walls. The rays were called [|x-rays]. ||
 * ^  || 1896 || Pitchblend || [|Henri Becquerel] was studying the fluorescence of pitchblend when he discovered a property of the pitchblend compound. [|Pitchblend] gave a fluorescent light with or without the aid of sunlight. ||
 * ^  || 1897 || [|The Electron and Its Properties]
 * ^  || 1909 || Mass of the Electron || [|Robert Millikan] discovered the mass of an electron by introducing charged oil droplets into an electrically charged field. The charge of the electron was found to be 1.602E-19 coulombs. Using Thomson's mass ration, Millikan found the mass of one electron to be 9.11E-28 grams. Millikan received the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery. ||
 * ^  || 1911 || Three Types of Radioactivity || [|Ernest Rutherford] sent a radioactive source through a magnetic field. Some of the radioactivity was deflected to the positive plate; some of it was deflected to the negative plate; and the rest went through the magnetic field without deflection. Thus, there were three types of radioactivity: [|alpha particles] (+), [|beta particles] (-) and [|gamma rays] (neutral). By performing other experiments and using this information, Rutherford created an atomic model different from Thomson's. Rutherford believed that the atom was mostly empty space. It contains an extremely tiny, dense positively charged nucleus (full of protons) and the nucleus is surrounded by electrons traveling at extremely high speeds. The Thomson model was thrown out after the introduction of the Rutherford model. ||
 * ^  || 1914 || Protons within a Nucleus || [|Henry Moseley] attempts to use x-rays to determine the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom. He was unsuccessful because the neutron had not been discovered yet. ||
 * ^  || 1932 || The Neutron
 * ^  || 1934 || Artificial Radioactive Elements || [|Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot-Curie] discovered that radioactive elements could be created artificially in the lab with the bombardment of alpha particles on certain elements. They were given the 1935 Nobel Prize. ||
 * ^  || 1940's || [|Manhattan Project] || [|Albert Einstein] and Enrico Fermi both warned the United States about Germany's extensive research on atomic fission reaction. Below the football field at the [|University of Chicago], the United States developed the very first working nuclear fission reactor. The Manhattan Project was in process. ||

= = Each link for each time interval contains some information about that period. Unfortunately, the information is sparse and the presentation of the info leaves much to be desired. However, more information on chemical history can be found in the links listed below. The list is collated in a chronological manner so like the table above, alchemy and black magic should be on top while traditional and modern chemistry should be closer to the end of the list. Also, there are some other links besides the ones that are in the time-interval section and these links should lead you to more information about the underlined topics.

taken from: []